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Science in the

Ancient World

An Encyclopedia

Russell M. Lawson

Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England

transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or

otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in

writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Lawson, Russell M., 1957–

Science in the ancient world : an encyclopedia / Russell M. Lawson.

p. cm. (History of science series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-85109-534-9 (acid-free paper)–ISBN 1-85109-539-X

(eBook)

1. Science, Ancient—History—Encyclopedias. I. Title. II. Series:

ABC-CLIO’s history of science series.

Q124.95.L39 2004

509.3'03—dc22

2004017715

07 06 05 04 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is available on the World Wide Web as an e-book. Visit abc-clio.com for details.

ABC-CLIO, Inc.

130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911

Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911

This book is printed on acid-free paper .

Manufactured in the United States of America

Contents

Introduction, xi

Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia

Academy, 1

Aelian, Claudius (floruit early third

century CE), 2

Agathemerus (floruit first century CE), 3

Agriculture, 3

Alcmaeon (floruit early sixth century

BCE), 6

Alexander of Macedon (356–323 BCE), 7

Alexandria, 9

Ammianus Marcellinus (325–395 CE), 11

Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (500–428

BCE), 13

Anaximander of Miletus (610–540 BCE),

Anaximenes of Miletus (585–525 BCE),

Apollonius of Perga (floruit 235 BCE), 16

Archelaus of Athens (floruit fifth century

BCE), 17

Archimedes (287–212 BCE), 17

Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BCE), 19

Aristotle (384–322 BCE), 20

Arrian (89–180 CE), 25

Asclepiades (floruit first century BCE), 26

Asclepius/Asclepiads, 27

Asia, East and South, 29

Astronomy, 30

Athenaeus (floruit early third century

CE), 35

Athens, 35

Atoms, 39

Aurelius, Marcus (121–180 CE), 40

Aurelius Augustine (354–430 CE), 42

Babylon, 45

Bronze Age (3500–800 BCE), 46

Caesar, Julius (100–44 BCE), 51

Calendars and Dating Systems, 52

Cato, Marcus Porcius (Elder) (234–149

BCE), 55

Celsus (floruit 25 CE), 56

Cicero (106–43 BCE), 57

Columella (5 BCE–60 CE), 58

Commentators, 58

vii

viii

Contents

Constantinople, 59

Constellations, 62

Hecataeus of Miletus (floruit 500 BCE),

101

Hellanicus of Lesbos (floruit fifth century

BCE), 101

Hellenism, 102

Heraclides of Pontus (floruit fourth

century BCE), 103

Heraclitus of Ephesus (540–480 BCE),

104

Hero (62–152 CE), 104

Herodotus of Halicarnassus (490–430

BCE), 105

Herophilus of Chalcedon (floruit third

century BCE), 107

Hesiod (floruit late eighth century BCE),

107

Hipparchus (190–120 BCE), 109

Hippo of Croton (floruit late fifth century

BCE), 109

Hippocrates (460–377 BCE), 109

History, 112

Homer (floruit eighth century BCE), 115

Hydraulics, 117

Hypatia of Alexandria (370–415 CE), 119

Democritus (460–370 BCE), 63

Diogenes Laertius (floruit third century

CE), 65

Diogenes of Apollonia (floruit late fifth

century BCE), 65

Dreams, 66

Easter, 69

Egypt, 69

Eleatic School, 72

Elements, 72

Empedocles (495–435 BCE), 73

Engineering and Technology, 74

Epictetus (55–135 CE), 76

Epicureanism, 76

Epicurus (341–271 BCE), 77

Erasistratus (275–194 BCE), 78

Eratosthenes (276–195 BCE), 78

Euclid (floruit 300 BCE), 79

Eudoxus of Cnidus (408–352 BCE), 81

Eunapius (floruit fifth century CE), 82

Iamblichus (250–325 CE), 121

Ionians, 122

Iron Age, 123

Irrigation Techniques, 124

Frontinus, Sextus Julius (floruit late first

century and early second century CE),

Galen (130–200 CE), 85

Gaza, 87

Geminus (floruit first century CE), 88

Geography/Geodesy, 88

Greek Archaic Age (800–500 BCE), 94

Greek Classical Age (500–323 BCE), 95

Greek Hellenistic Age (323–31 BCE), 98

Julian (331–363 CE), 127

Later Roman Empire (180–565 CE), 129

Leucippus (floruit fifth century BCE),

131

Life Sciences, 132

Contents

Logos, 134

Lucretius (floruit first century BCE),

135

Lyceum, 138

Philostratus (170–250 CE), 182

Phoenicians, 183

Physical Sciences, 184

Plato (427–347 BCE), 187

Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), 190

Pliny theYounger (61–113 CE), 193

Plotinus (205–270 CE), 194

Plutarch (46–120 CE), 195

Polybius (208–126 BCE), 199

Porphyry (234–305 CE), 200

Posidonius of Rhodes (135–50 BCE),

201

Prometheus, 201

Psychology, 203

Ptolemaeus, Claudius (100–170 CE), 208

Pythagoras (570–490 BCE), 209

Pytheas of Massilia (floruit late fourth

century BCE), 211

Magi, 139

Magic, 140

Magna Graecia, 141

Marine Science, 142

Mathematics, 144

Maximus of Ephesus (floruit fourth

century CE), 145

Medicine, 146

Mesopotamia (3500–550 BCE), 148

Meteorology, 152

Miletus, 153

Military Science, 155

Mountains, 158

Myth, 161

Roman Principate (31 BCE–180 CE),

213

Roman Roads and Bridges, 215

Rome, 217

Nearchus of Crete (ca. 360–312 BCE),

165

Neoplatonism, 167

New Testament, 169

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (5–65 CE), 221

Seven Sages, 222

Seven Wonders of the Ancient World,

223

Social Sciences, 224

Socrates (470–399 BCE), 227

Solon (640–560 BCE), 228

Stoicism, 229

Strabo (63 BCE–21 CE), 230

Old Testament (Hebrew Bible), 173

Oribasius (floruit fourth century CE),

175

Paganism, 177

Palladius (floruit mid-fourth century

BCE), 179

Peripatetic School, 179

Philo of Byzantium (260–180 BCE), 180

Philolaus (floruit fifth century BCE), 180

Philosophy, 181

Tacitus (56–117 CE), 233

Thales (625–545 BCE), 234

Themistius (317–388 CE), 235

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