The US History.pdf

The First Americans

About 120,000 years ago, the Earth fell into an ice age. The northern polar ice cap grew southward,

water solidified into ice, and ocean levels fell. With the lowering of the oceans, hidden land was

exposed, including a land bridge connecting Siberia (located in modern-day eastern Russia) and

Alaska. Between 15,000 and 50,000 years ago, various small, nomadic hunting groups from Asia

crossed the land bridge, becoming the first human inhabitants of the Americas.

Over the next millenia, these earliest Americans dispersed across much of the Western Hemisphere. As

the Ice Age came to an end around 10,000 years ago and Earth’s atmosphere warmed, the land that

these groups inhabited changed dramatically. Sea levels rose and melting glaciers filled the Great Lakes

and Mississippi River Basin with water. Glaciers receded northward, and frozen plains gave way to

deciduous eastern forests, grassy central plains, and desert throughout the West. In time, the land

bridge disappeared back under the body of water now known as the Bering Strait.

The descendants of the earliest Americans changed with the landscape. As Ice Age animals such as

woolly mammoths disappeared, hunters began to prey on smaller game. The groups also fished and

gathered local provisions, like seeds and nuts, from the land. About 5,000 years ago, some groups

began to domesticate plants. As these groups learned how to farm and more efficiently use natural

resources, they required less land, and many in the East and Midwest gave up their nomadic lifestyle

and established small, stable communities by around 300 B.C.

The Emergence of Tribes

Once they established permanent settlements, Native American groups began to form what are known

today as tribes. Different tribes developed their own languages and social hierarchies, and distinct

religious beliefs and practices. Many tribes invented specialized tools such as the bow and arrow, and

mastered skills like pottery, weaving, and basketry.

Tribes in neighboring geographic areas often maintained contact with each other through trade and

warfare. Through this contact, an extensive trade network developed, spanning much of the North and

South American continent. However, the tribes remained distinct, each adapting to its own particular

geography. Modern day anthropologists and archeologists categorize Native American tribes by

geographic area.

Northwest Coast

Chinook, Haida, and other tribes spanned the Pacific coast from Alaska to California, living primarily

off the abundant fish. The Northwest tribes built totem poles depicting supernatural creatures. They

were proficient in other arts as well.

California

Within California, tribes such as the Chumash and Pomo lived in small villages of about one hundred

people. They specialized in processing acorns, which were one of the region’s many abundant resources

that allowed local tribes to proser.

Southwest

In the early history of the Southwest, the dominant Anasazi tribe—known for their elaborate cliff

dwellings—mastered irrigation and farming. By the civilization’s peak in the twelfth century, some

village populations topped 1,000. A system of roads connected many of these villages, and it seems

likely that Anasazi trade networks extended as far as northern Mesoamerica, since archeologists have

found artifacts in Anasazi territory that could only have been produced by civilizations in Mexico.

Yet around 1300 a.d., tens of thousands of Anasazi people deserted their dwellings en masse, possibly

due to drought, warfare, or depletion of natural resources. They spread throughout the Southwest, and

their descendants, such as the Hopi and Zuni, are known as Pueblo tribes. (Pueblo means “village” in

Spanish, and refers to both the people and the villages in which they lived.) These Pueblo tribes, along

with the Navajos and Apaches who migrated from the north around the fourteenth century, farmed

along rivers using advanced irrigation techniques, foraged for food, and mined turquoise for trade with

Mexico.

Great Basin, Plateau

The Paiute, Shoshone, and Ute tribes made their home in the Great Basin, between the Sierra Nevada

Mountains to the west and the Rockies to the east. This land, too dry for farming, gave rise to foraging

bands who hunted small mammals and gathered seeds and nuts. Other tribes inhabited the Plateau—a

high, flat expanse to the north of the Great Basin—and lived as food gatherers, picking berries, seeds,

and roots.

Plains

The Cheyenne, Sioux, and other tribes hunted in the Great Plains, which extended from the Rocky

Mountains to the Mississippi River. The Plains were largely uninhabited before the arrival of

Columbus. When Europeans brought horses and guns into the Plains, the tribes developed into

powerful hunting groups.

Eastern Woodlands

The Iroquois tribes, known as the Five Nations, controlled the Northeast. The Cherokee and other

tribes inhabited the Southeast; the Fox, Chee, and others lived around the Great Lakes; and the

Mississippian culture dominated the Mississippi flood plains. While all these Eastern Woodlands tribes

hunted, many were skilled in agriculture, employing the “slash and burn” technique and crop rotation

to manage their land for food production. These tribes are also known for their skill with crafts and

their well-developed trading networks.

Of these Eastern Woodlands tribes, the Mississippian tribes in particular were skilled in small-scale

architecture. Known as “mound builders,” they built large platform mounds at the center of their

towns, which served as religious temples for ceremony or burial, or as the homes of tribal leaders.

Before the age of European exploration, the Mississippian centers collapsed and the inhabitants fled to

establish small villages.

Mesoamerica

Some Native Americans formed rich and powerful civilizations in Mesoamerica, south of the present-

day United States. The ancient Aztecs (centered near Mexico City) are known for their architecture,

which includes stone pyramids. The Maya of Central America are also known for their architecture, as

well as their advanced astronomy, mathematics, calendar systems, and for developing their own form

of writing. The Incas, based in Peru, built an extensive network of towns throughout the Andes.

Exploration Before Columbus

By the time Christopher Columbus landed in the Western Hemisphere in 1492, the New World had

already been “discovered” more than once. First, of course, there were the Native Americans we

discussed in the previous chapter. But there is solid evidence that other Europeans made it to the

Americas long before Columbus did. Around A.D. 1000, Viking Norsemen led by Leif Ericson sailed

from Norway across the Atlantic Ocean and settled in Newfoundland, in northeast Canada. These

Vikings also explored some distance up and down the coast. This settlement, however, was short-lived.

The Norsemen soon sailed back across the ocean, having had little to no effect on North America.

The Age of Exploration

Though Columbus was not the first to discover the New World, his landing in the New World in 1492 is

important: it ushered in an era of unprecedented European exploration and settlement of the Americas.

This period is known as the Age of Exploration. During this age, European explorers searched for trade

routes, overseas wealth, and adventure. Technological innovations spurred the exploration boom. A

“maritime revolution” in Europe saw the invention of the the astrolabe, a device used to determine

latitude; the caravel, an large ship of unprecedented speed; and the magnetic compass.

Important Names in The Age of Exploration

Name

Country Achievement(s)

Christopher

Columbus

Spain

1492: Reached Bahamas; explored Cuba, Haiti

1493: Established Santo Domingo

John Cabot England 1497/8: Claimed Nova Scotia, Newfoundland for England

Amerigo Vespucci Spain,

Portugal

1499: Explored coast of S. America for Spain

1501: Explored coast of S. America for Portugal

Ponce de Leon Spain 1513/21: Explored Florida

Name Country Achievement(s)

Ferdinand Magellan Spain 1519: Began the first circumnavigation of the globe

Hernando Cortez Spain 1519–1522: Conquered the Aztecs in Mexico

Francisco Pizarro Spain 1530–1536: Conquered the Incas in Peru

Hernando de Soto Spain 1539–1542: Explored coast between Mississippi River and Florida

Jacques Cartier France 1542: Traveled St. Lawrence River to Montreal

Samuel de

Champlain

France 1608–1615: Explored Great Lakes, founded Quebec, established fur trade with Native

Americans

Henry Hudson Netherlands 1609–1611: Sailed up Hudson River

The Major Players in the Age of Exploration

The individual explorers often get the glory, but for the SAT II test, it is more important that you know

the broader context: the nations that sponsored those explorers; the reasons those nations were so

interested in exploring and settling the New World; and the geographical territories that each nation

claimed as its own. Don’t get us wrong: familiarity with the individual explorers is helpful (that’s why

we gave you the chart), but you should understand the explorer’s contributions within the larger

context of the age.

Spain

The Spanish monarchy began the Age of Exploration when it sponsored Christopher Columbus’s

journey westward, across the Atlantic Ocean, in search of Asia. Columbus failed to reach Asia, landing

instead on the Bahama Islands in 1492. He returned to the New World in 1493 and established the

settlement of Santo Domingo as a base for further exploration. In 1493, the Pope declared that all lands

west of the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands belonged to Spain, but Portugal, another great sea

power, disputed the papal decree. The two countries reached a compromise with the Treaty of

Tordesillas in 1494, which divided all future discoveries between Castile (a region of Spain) and

Portugal.

The Treaty of Tordesillas reveals that both Portugal and Spain led the charge in exploring the New

World. But while the Portuguese focused on navigation and geographical observation, the Spanish put

their efforts into expedition and colonization.

After the Treaty of Tordesillas, Spain quickly established itself as the premier European power in the

New World, sending wave after wave of explorers into South America. These Spanish expeditions, led

by conquistadors , set out in search of gold, slaves, lucrative trade routes, and fame. Indeed, they

succeeded in creating an enormous empire. By 1522, the Spaniard Hernando Cortez had conquered the

Aztecs in Mexico and by 1536, under the leadership of Francisco Pizaro, Spain had conquered the Incas

in Peru. Conquistadors plundered the indigenous tribes for treasure and slave labor. They established

numerous encomiendas —sprawling estates populated with native slaves. Under Conquistador rule,

many of the natives died from disease, malnutrition, and fatigue, and they were soon replaced on the

encomiendas by African slaves brought in by Portuguese slave traders.

In North America, Spain initially proved just as dominant. Ponce de Leon claimed Florida for Spain in

1513, and Hernando de Soto led a Spanish exploration of the southeastern United States in 1539,

discovering the Mississippi River. In 1565, Spain established the first successful European settlement in

North America—a fortress in St. Augustine, Florida. Around the turn of the seventeenth century,

Spanish settlers moved into the Southwest, establishing the colony of Santa Fe in 1610. In an effort to

maintain control of North America, the Spanish attacked many British and French settlements and

destroyed forts. Spain saw its claim on Florida as particularly important in the effort to diminish

English and French expansion southward.

France

France also played a strong role in the New World, though its efforts were mainly confined to North

America. The French led the charge to find a Northwest Passage, a much-hoped-for water route

through which ships might be able to cross the Americas to access Asia. In three voyages between 1534

and 1542, French explorer Jacques Cartier traveled the St. Lawrence River as far as Montreal. The

Northwest Passage eluded him (it doesn’t exist), but his explorations established France’s early

dominance of North America’s major waterways. In 1562, French settlers briefly and unsuccessfully

attempted to settle in what is now South Carolina, and in 1564, the Spanish attacked and destroyed a

French settlement near Jacksonville, Florida.

Despite its failures, France continued to be a major player in North America. Most notably, the French

engaged in the highly profitable fur trade, setting up trading outposts throughout Newfoundland,

Maine, and regions farther west. Samuel de Champlain founded the first permanent French

settlement in 1608 at Quebec, and established a fur trade with the region’s Native American tribes. By

the end of the seventeenth century the French controlled the St. Lawrence River, the Mississippi River,

the Great Lakes and, therefore, much of the land in the heart of the continent. Of all the European

colonial powers, the French enjoyed the best relationship with Native Americans.

The Netherlands

The Dutch East India Company became interested in North American settlement in 1609, when Henry

Hudson sailed up the river that now carries his name. In 1625, the Dutch bought Manhattan island

from the natives who lived there and established the settlement of New Amsterdam at the mouth of the

Hudson River. While the colony flourished on account of the fur trade, the Dutch did little to expand

their landholdings beyond their domain around the Hudson. A European conflict between England and

the Netherlands spread to the New World in 1664, during which the English took over New

Amsterdam, renaming it New York. After 1664, Dutch influence waned.

England

Compared to other European powers, England got a relatively late start in the exploration and

colonization of the New World. True, King Henry VII of England did send explorer John Cabot across

the Atlantic in 1497, and Cabot claimed Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and the Grand Banks for England.

But after Cabot’s efforts, the English became more concerned with domestic issues and generally

ceased exploring. For much of the sixteenth century, England had no real presence in the New World.

English interest in the New World increased in the second half of the sixteenth century. Religious

groups (such as the Puritans, who disagreed with the practices of the Church of England) saw the New

World as a place where they could practice their religion without persecution. The English monarchy

was enticed by the wealth pouring into Spain from Mexico, South America, and the West Indies; and

the riches Captain Francis Drake and others plundered from Spanish ships off of Central America in the

late 1570s particularly piqued England’s interest. Catholic Spain felt threatened by British sea power

and the influx of English Protestants, and the two European powers quickly became bitter rivals, each

scheming to position strategic bases throughout the New World.

England ’ s first effort to establish a settlement in the New World ended badly. In 1584, Sir Walter

Raleigh gained a royal charter to found the settlement of Roanoke, located on an island off the coast of

North Carolina. Raids by Native American tribes and disease devastated the settlement, and it was

eventually abandoned. Still, the Spanish monarchy, determined to eliminate their New World rivals,

dispatched the great Spanish Armada in 1588 to attack the British off the coast of England. Through

luck and ingenuity, a fleet of outgunned English ships decimated the Armada. With this victory,

England began its ascent as a premier naval power, which bolstered its colonial efforts, and Spain fell

into a slow decline.

The struggle between Britain and Spain dragged on throughout the end of the sixteenth century, so that

by 1600 the English crown and Parliament were hesitant to spend money on colonization. In place of

government funding, joint-stock companies formed to gather funding for colonization through the

sale of public stock. Along with religious groups—who saw the rise of the English navy as a real

opportunity to move to the New World and escape religious persecution—these companies were

responsible for most English colonization throughout the seventeenth century.

Effects of Colonization on the Natives

Colonization had a disastrous effect on the native population. War, slavery, and starvation claimed

many lives, but disease, especially smallpox, had the most devastating effect. In Mexico, the native

population plummeted from 25 million in 1519 to 2 million by 1600. European settlement physically

displaced numerous tribes, setting in motion the sad fate of Native Americans throughout American

history.

The Spanish, however, provided the Native Americans of the Great Plains with an unintended gift:

horses. During the conquistadors’ expeditions into the Southwest, some horses escaped and formed

large herds on the Great Plains. Within a few generations, Native Americans in the plains region

became experts on horseback, expanding their hunting and trading capabilities and dramatically

transforming Native American culture.

The Early English Colonies

Because England got such a late start in the colonization game, they couldn’t just set up their colonies

wherever they wanted. Spain dominated South America, Mexico, the West Indies, the American

Southwest, and Florida. The French held sway along North America’s major waterways. In addition, the

dense forests and occasionally hostile Native American tribes prevented English settlers from moving

westward past the Appalachian Mountains. The early English settlements were therefore concentrated

along the eastern coast of North America.

There were three types of British colonies: royal, proprietary, and self-governing. Each type had its own

characteristics.

 Royal colonies were owned by the king.

 Proprietary colonies , such as Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware, were basically land

grants from the British government. Individuals were awarded huge tracts of land that they

would then supervise and govern, usually in return for political or financial favors. These

colonial governors reported directly to the king.

 Self-governing colonies , including Rhode Island and Connecticut, formed when the king

granted a charter to a joint-stock company, and the company then set up its own government

independent of the crown. The king could revoke the colonial charter at any time and convert a

self-governing colony into a royal colony.

The SAT II test will focus on the particularly important English colonies of Jamestown, Plymouth, and

the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Jamestown

Nearly twenty years after the failure of the English settlement at Roanoke, two separate joint-stock

companies set out to found settlements along the Atlantic seaboard. In 1606, England’s King James I

authorized a charter granting land in what was then called Virginia (but stretched from modern-day

Maine to North Carolina) to the Virginia Company of Plymouth and the Virginia Company of London.

Colonists, considered employees of their respective companies, journeyed to America in 1607. The

Virginia Company of Plymouth failed miserably, and its settlement in Sagadahoc, Maine was

abandoned within two years. The Virginia Company of London was more successful, though in the New

World, success was something of a relative term.

Jamestown’s Early Years

The 105 original Jamestown colonists were all men. Jamestown was a business venture, not a place to

raise a family. The colonists took this ethic to heart and focused all their efforts on getting rich,

neglecting to tend to any sort of agriculture. As a result, more than half of the colonists died of

malnourishment and starvation within the first year. Only 38 colonists remained when reinforcements

arrived in 1608.

Captain John Smith , one of the surviving original colonists, soon emerged as a prominent leader. In

1608, Smith organized work gangs to ensure the colony had food and shelter and made rules to control

sanitation and hygiene. During the winter of 1608–1609, only twelve of 200 men died. Smith also

excelled in diplomacy, maintaining friendly ties with the nearby Powhatan Confederacy. But when

Smith was wounded in 1609 and returned to England, the colony staggered toward collapse. Out of a

population of about 500 colonists in Jamestown in September 1609, 400 died by May 1610. Relations

with the nearby Native Americans deteriorated, and in 1610 the first Anglo-Powhatan War erupted.

Tobacco, Money, and Success

In the end, Jamestown was saved—not by gold or silver—but because it had the perfect climate for

growing tobacco. John Rolfe , an Englishman who married the Powhatan leader’s daughter,

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