(philosophy) a practical guide to critical thinking.pdf

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By Greg R. Haskins

haskins02@yahoo.com

August 15, 2006

Acknowledgment : Much of this paper was based on two sources, both by Robert Todd Carroll, Ph. D: 1)

Becoming a Critical Thinker - A Guide for the New Millennium , Pearson Custom Publishing, 2000; and 2 ) The

Skeptic’s Dictionary, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. Please refer to these excellent references, especially the first

one mentioned, for a more in-depth introduction to critical thinking.

This paper presents a concise introduction to critical thinking. It is intended as a handy

tool to help anyone evaluate or develop sound reasoning and arguments.

Table of Contents

Page

Introduction

What Critical Thinking is Not

Step 1: Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

Step 2: Recognize & Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

Step 3: Identify & Characterize Arguments

Step 4: Evaluate Information Sources

Step 5: Evaluate Arguments

Argument Checklist

Tables of Critical Thinking Hindrances

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Introduction

There have been many definitions of critical thinking. From a practical perspective, it

may be defined as:

A process by which we use our knowledge and intelligence to effectively arrive at

the most reasonable and justifiable positions on issues, and which endeavors to

identify and overcome the numerous hindrances to rational thinking.

Not everyone values the need for critical thinking. Often, being methodically objective is

viewed as cold, sterile, and worst of all, boring. To those who say “Have faith and let

your feelings guide you to the truth,” or “Don’t let facts get in the way of an inspiring or

interesting story,” these words will probably not resonate. But for those who truly

understand and appreciate the importance of critical thinking, this paper, including the

attached tables, can become a useful reference for daily life.

Just because you are intelligent or

have great knowledge does not mean

you can think critically. A profound

genius may have the most irrational of

beliefs or the most unreasonable of

opinions. Critical thinking is about

how we use our intelligence and

knowledge to reach objective and

rationale viewpoints. Opinions and

beliefs based on critical thinking stand

on firmer ground compared to those

formulated through less rational

processes. Additionally, critical

thinkers are usually better equipped to

make decisions and solve problems

compared to those who lack this

ability.

1. Reality: What really exists

and happens outside the

confines of our own minds.

2. Perception: How we sense

or experience reality first hand.

3A. Basic

Emotional

Needs: Security,

acceptance,

belonging,

recognition, love,

etc.

3. Thinking Processes: How

we synthesize our perception of

reality in order to create ideas &

draw conclusions. Our thinking

processes may or may not

employ critical thinking .

3B. Values &

Principles: Our

preconceived

ideas of what is

important versus

not important and

what is right

versus wrong.

4. Conclusions: Our resulting

opinions, claims, beliefs, and

understanding of facts.

Figure 1 presents a very simplified

model of the human understanding

process. Basically, our thinking

processes (Step 3) synthesize our

perceptions (Step 2) of reality (Step 1)

in the context of our basic emotional needs (Step 3A) and our values and principles

(Step 3B) in order to reach conclusions (Step 4) about anything in life. Critical thinking is

just one sub-process of the thinking processes step that people may or may not employ

in order to reach conclusions.

Figure 1

The Human Understanding Process

(Simplified Model)

Critical thinking is more than thinking logically or analytically ; it also means thinking

rationally or objectively . There is an important distinction. Logic and analysis are

essentially philosophical and mathematical concepts, whereas thinking rationally and

objectively are broader concepts that also embody the fields of psychology and

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sociology. These latter two areas address the complex effects of human behavior (e.g.,

hindrances) on our thinking processes.

Becoming an accomplished critical thinker can be considered a five-step process:

Step 1: Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

Step 2: Recognize and Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

Step 3: Identify and Characterize Arguments

Step 4: Evaluate Information Sources

Step 5: Evaluate Arguments

Each of these steps is described separately below.

What Critical Thinking Is Not

Thinking critically is not thinking negatively with a predisposition to find fault or flaws. It

is a neutral and unbiased process for evaluating claims or opinions, either someone

else’s or our own.

Critical thinking is not intended to make people think alike. For one reason, critical

thinking is distinct from one’s values or principles (see Figure 1), which explains why two

people who are equally adept at critical thinking, but have different values or principles,

can reach entirely different conclusions. Additionally, there will always be differences in

perception and basic emotional needs (see Figure 1) which prevent us from all thinking

the same way.

Critical thinking does not threaten one’s individuality or personality. It may increase your

objectivity, but it will not change who you are.

It is not a belief. Critical thinking can evaluate the validity of beliefs, but it is not a belief

by itself – it is a process .

Critical thinking does not discourage or replace feelings or emotional thinking. Emotions

give our lives meaning, pleasure, and a sense of purpose. Critical thinking cannot

possibly fulfill this role. Still, emotional decisions that are also critical decisions (such as

deciding to get married or have children) should embody critical thinking.

Critical thinking does not blindly support everything based on science. For example, our

culture is full of bogus scientific claims that are used to market everything from breakfast

cereal to breast enhancement pills.

It is also important to understand that arguments based on critical thinking are not

necessarily the most persuasive. Perhaps more often than not, the most persuasive

arguments are those designed to appeal to our basic human/emotional needs rather

than to our sense of objectivity. For that reason, it is common for highly persuasive

arguments by politicians, TV evangelists, and sales people, among others, to

intentionally lack critical thinking. (See pertinent examples in tables 1 through 4.)

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Step 1: Adopt the Attitude of a Critical Thinker

The first step to becoming a proficient critical thinker is developing the proper attitude.

Such an attitude embodies the following characteristics:

· Open-mindedness

· Healthy skepticism

· Intellectual humility

· Free thinking

· High motivation

The first two characteristics may appear contradictory, but they are not. The critical

thinker must be willing to investigate viewpoints different from his or her own, but at the

same time recognize when to doubt claims that do not merit such investigation. A critical

thinker must be neither dogmatic nor gullible. Being both open-minded and skeptical

means seeking out the facts, information sources, and reasoning to support issues we

intend to judge; examining issues from as many sides as possible; rationally looking for

the good and bad points of the various sides examined; accepting the fact that we may

be in error ourselves; and maintaining the goal of getting at the truth (or as close to the

truth as possible), rather than trying to please others or find fault with their views. Too

much skepticism will lead one to doubt everything and commit oneself to nothing, while

too little will lead one to gullibility and credulousness.

Having intellectual humility means adhering tentatively to recently acquired opinions;

being prepared to examine new evidence and arguments even if such examination leads

one to discover flaws in one’s own cherished beliefs; to stop thinking that complex

issues can be reduced to matters of ‘right & wrong’ or ‘black & white’, and to begin

thinking in terms of ‘degrees of certainty’ or ‘shades of grey’. Sometimes ‘I don’t know’

can be the wisest position to take on an issue. As Socrates noted: Arrogance does not

befit the critical thinker .

A critical thinker must also have an independent mind, i.e., be a free thinker . To think

freely, one must restrain one’s desire to believe because of social pressures to conform.

This can be quite difficult or even impossible for some. One must be willing to ask if

conformity is motivating one’s belief or opinion, and if so, have the strength and courage

to at least temporarily abandon one’s position until he or she can complete a more

objective and thorough evaluation.

Finally, a critical thinker must have a natural curiosity to further one’s understanding and

be highly motivated to put in the necessary work sufficient to evaluate the multiple sides

of issues. The only way one can overcome the lack of essential knowledge on a subject

is to do the necessary studying to reach a sufficient level of understanding before

making judgments. This may require the critical thinker to ask many questions, which

can be unsettling to those asked to respond. A critical thinker cannot be lazy.

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Step 2: Recognize & Avoid Critical Thinking Hindrances

Each day of our lives we become exposed to things that hinder our ability to think

clearly, accurately, and fairly. Some of these hindrances result from unintentional and

natural human limitations, while others are clearly calculated and manipulative. Some

are obvious, but most are subtle or insidious. Armed with the proper attitude (from Step

1), a critical thinker must next understand how to recognize and avoid (or mitigate) the

gauntlet of deception that characterizes everyday life. These hindrances can be divided

into four categories, presented in tables at the end of this paper:

· Table 1: Basic Human Limitations

· Table 2: Use of Language

· Table 3: Faulty Logic or Perception

· Table 4: Psychological and Sociological Pitfalls

Each table provides: a) a listing of hindrances applicable to that category; b) a concise

definition of each hindrance; c) illustrative examples; and d) tips to avoid or overcome

such hindrances.

Basic Human Limitations (Table 1) applies to everyone, including the most proficient

critical thinkers. These limitations remind us that we are not perfect and that our

understanding of facts, perceptions, memories, built-in biases, etc., precludes us from

ever seeing or understanding the world with total objectivity and clarity. The best we can

do is to acquire a sufficient or adequate understanding depending on the issue at hand.

The Use of Language (Table 2) is highly relevant to critical thinking. The choice of

words themselves can conceal the truth, mislead, confuse, or deceive us. From ads

which guarantee easy weight loss to politicians assuring prosperity for everyone, a

critical thinker must learn to recognize when words are not intended to communicate

ideas or feelings, but rather to control thought and behavior.

Misconceptions due to Faulty Logic or Perception (Table 3) or Psychological and

Sociological Pitfalls (Table 4) can also lead one to erroneous conclusions. A critical

thinker must understand how numbers can be used to mislead; perceptions can be

misinterpreted due to psychological and sociological influences; and reasoning can be

twisted to gain influence and power.

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