CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN TELEVISION CELEBRITY USE IN THE UNITED STATES AND LEBANON

Journal of International Business Research, 2009 by Kalliny, Morris, Beydoun, Abdul-Rahman, Saran, Anshu, Gentry, Lance

ABSTRACT

Jagdish and Kamakura (1995) argued that celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent form of advertising in the United States. Approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person, and approximately 10% of the dollars spent on television advertising are used in celebrity endorsement advertisements (Advertising Age 1987; Sherman 1985). The purpose of this study is to compare the use of celebrity endorsement between the United Sates and Lebanon in terms of two fundamental cultural dimensions: 1) low versus high context, and 2) individualism versus collectivism. This study investigates differences and similarities regarding celebrity characteristics in the U.S. and Lebanon.

INTRODUCTION

Jagdish and Kamakura (1995) argued that celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent form of advertising in the United States. Approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person, and approximately 10% of the dollars spent on television advertising are used in celebrity endorsement advertisements (Advertising Age 1987; Sherman 1985). Schickel (1985) stated that American society is fascinated with celebrities and individuals from various fields such as, politics, sports, entertainment, business, fashion, and others are often elevated to celebrity status. Shimp (2000) estimated that around one-quarter of all commercials screened in the United States include celebrity endorsers. Celebrities have been able to generate millions of dollars in endorsement deals to appear in advertisements. Erdogan (1999) postulated that companies invest large sums of money to align their brands and themselves with endorsers. For example, Nike signed a $100 million, five-year contract with Tiger Woods for his endorsements (Choi et al. 2005).

There are several reasons for the extensive use of celebrities in advertising. Research findings show that celebrities make advertisements believable (Kamins et al., 1989), enhance message recall (Friedman and Friedman 1979), aid in the recognition of brand names (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann 1983), create a positive attitude towards the brand (Kamins et al. 1989), and create a distinct personality for the endorsed brand (McCracken 1989). Because it is believed that celebrity endorsements are likely to generate a greater likelihood of customers choosing the endorsed brand (Heath, McCarthy, and Mothersbaugh 1994; Kahle and Homer 1985), business are willing to pay high prices to obtain it.

Choi, Lee and Kim (2005) argued that the celebrity phenomenon is not limited to the United Sates and appears to be universal. In spite of the universality of this phenomenon, Choi et al. (2005. p. 85) state, "No research to date has empirically examined the assumption that the celebrity endorsement strategy is used in a similar fashion from country to country, or that consumers around the world respond to it in a similar way." Most of the celebrity research that has been conducted has been about the United States. We believe that in order to develop a general understanding of such a universal phenomenon, research efforts must be broadened to cover more parts of the world.

The Arab world is one of the regions historically ignored in advertising research. Abernethy and Franke (1996) found 40 out of 59 content analysis studies dealt with the United States media and concluded, "Much less is known about advertising information in other countries. For example, no study has examined the advertising information in any African nation, any part of the Middle East other than Saudi Arabia, or any of the 'economies in transition' associated with the former USSR" (p. 15). Elbashier & Nicholls (1983, p. 68) stated that, "it is perhaps somewhat surprising that academics have not gone further and attempted to examine the impact of cultural differences in Arab countries on Marketing, as there is a considerable field of literature suggesting that several aspects of "the marketing mix" are culturally sensitive". In response to this, the purpose of this study is to compare the use of celebrity endorsement between the United Sates and Lebanon in terms of two fundamental cultural dimensions: 1) low versus high context, and 2) individualism versus collectivism. This study will investigate differences and similarities regarding celebrity characteristics in the U.S. and Lebanon.

CELEBRITY AND CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS IN THE ARAB WORLD

The appearance of celebrity in advertising dates back to the late nineteenth century (Choi et al. 2005). As stated previously, the celebrity phenomenon is not limited to the United Sates and appears to be universal (Choi et al. 2005). The universality of the phenomenon lies in the fact that each country has its own celebrities that seem to enjoy fame and recognition. The advancement of technology had enabled people to be more connected and aware of what others do than ever before. For example, in recent years and months the Arab world has been introduced to a variety of reality television shows that were imitation of shows aired in the United Sates and Britain. Previously, such shows were unheard of in the Arab world because such shows seem to cross cultural and religious boundaries and that is why some of these shows were taken of air shortly after they were introduced (BBC News, 2005).

Cultural differences in television celebrity use in the United States and Lebanon.

INTRODUCTION

Jagdish and Kamakura (1995) argued that celebrity endorsement has become a prevalent form of advertising in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Approximately 20% of all television commercials feature a famous person, and approximately 10% of the dollars spent on television advertising are used in celebrity endorsement advertisements (Advertising Age 1987; Sherman 1985). Schickel (1985) stated that American society is fascinated with celebrities and individuals from various fields such as, politics, sports, entertainment, business, fashion, and others are often elevated to celebrity status. Shimp (2000) estimated that around one-quarter of all commercials screened in the United States include celebrity endorsers. Celebrities have been able to generate millions of dollars in endorsement deals to appear in advertisements. Erdogan (1999) postulated that companies invest large sums of money to align their brands and themselves with endorsers. For example, Nike signed a $100 million, five-year contract with Tiger Woods for his endorsements (Choi et al. 2005).

 

There are several reasons for the extensive use of celebrities in advertising. Research findings show that celebrities make advertisements believable be·liev·a·ble  
adj.
Capable of eliciting belief or trust. See Synonyms at plausible.

be·lieva·bil  (Kamins et al., 1989), enhance message recall (Friedman and Friedman 1979), aid in the recognition of brand names (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann 1983), create a positive attitude towards the brand (Kamins et al. 1989), and create a distinct personality for the endorsed brand (McCracken 1989). Because it is believed that celebrity endorsements are likely to generate a greater likelihood of customers choosing the endorsed brand (Heath, McCarthy, and Mothersbaugh 1994; Kahle and Homer 1985), business are willing to pay high prices to obtain it.

Choi, Lee and Kim (2005) argued that the celebrity phenomenon is not limited to the United Sates and appears to be universal. In spite of the universality of this phenomenon, Choi et al. (2005. p. 85) state, "No research to date has empirically examined the assumption that the celebrity endorsement strategy is used in a similar fashion from country to country, or that consumers around the world respond to it in a similar way." Most of the celebrity research that has been conducted has been about the United States. We believe that in order to develop a general understanding of such a universal phenomenon, research efforts must be broadened to cover more parts of the world.

The Arab world is one of the regions historically ignored in advertising research. Abernethy and Franke (1996) found 40 out of 59 content analysis studies dealt with the United States media and concluded, "Much less is known about advertising information in other countries. For example, no study has examined the advertising information in any African nation, any part of the Middle East other than Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia (sä`dē ərā`bēə, sou`–, sô–), officially Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, kingdom (2005 est. pop. , or any of the 'economies in transition' associated with the former USSR USSR: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. " (p. 15). Elbashier & Nicholls (1983, p. 68) stated that, "it is perhaps somewhat surprising that academics have not gone further and attempted to examine the impact of cultural differences in Arab countries on Marketing, as there is a considerable field of literature suggesting that several aspects of "the marketing mix" are culturally sensitive". In response to this, the purpose of this study is to compare the use of celebrity endorsement between the United Sates and Lebanon in terms of two fundamental cultural dimensions Cultural dimensions are the mostly psychological dimensions, or value constructs, which can be used to describe a specific culture. These are often used in Intercultural communication-/Cross-cultural communication-based research.

See also: Edward T. : 1) low versus high context, and 2) individualism versus collectivism collectivism

Any of several types of social organization that ascribe central importance to the groups to which individuals belong (e.g., state, nation, ethnic group, or social class). It may be contrasted with individualism. . This study will investigate differences and similarities regarding celebrity characteristics in the U.S. and Lebanon.

CELEBRITY AND CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS IN THE ARAB WORLD

The appearance of celebrity in advertising dates back to the late nineteenth century (Choi et al. 2005). As stated previously, the celebrity phenomenon is not limited to the United Sates and appears to be universal (Choi et al. 2005). The universality of the phenomenon lies in the fact that each country has its own celebrities that seem to enjoy fame and recognition. The advancement of technology had enabled people to be more connected and aware of what others do than ever before. For example, in recent years and months the Arab world has been introduced to a variety of reality television shows that were imitation of shows aired in the United Sates and Britain. Previously, such shows were unheard of Not heard of; of which there are no tidings.
Unknown to fame; obscure.
- Glanvill.

See also: Unheard Unheard  in the Arab world because such shows seem to cross cultural and religious boundaries and that is why some of these shows were taken of air shortly after they were introduced (BBC BBC
 in full British Broadcasting Corp.

Publicly financed broadcasting system in Britain. A private company at its founding in 1922, it was replaced by a public corporation under royal charter in 1927.  News, 2005).

Although celebrity fascination takes place in the Arab world, it is likely that the way people react to celebrity is different from the way people do in the U.S. due to religious and cultural factors. In spite of these cultural and religious values; however, Arab fascination with celebrity has recently increased due to more exposure to the West and particularly the United States. For example, BBC News (2005) reported that "a Saudi star of a reality TV show caused such commotion among fans in a Riyadh mall he was reportedly arrested for sparking an "indecent scene." Saudi fans tried to hug and kiss the star which is against religious and cultural values of the kingdom. This is not to say that Arabs are not fascinated with celebrity. BBC News (1970) reported that about 3 million people attend the funeral of Abdel Nasser (the former president of Egypt). More recently, BBC News (2005) reported that thousands of people attended the funeral of the Egyptian actor, Ahmad Zaki, who was covered in the Egyptian flag to honor him. Finally, NPR NPR

In currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Nepal Rupee.

Notes:
The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion.  (2005) reported that hundred of thousands attended the funeral of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri Rafik Bahaeddine Al-Hariri — (November 1 1944 – February 14 2005), (Arabic: رفيق بهاءالدين الحريري  in downtown Beirut. Abdel Halim Hafez's funeral (one of the most famous singers in Egypt during the 1960s and 1970s attracted more than a 100 thousand people when he died in 1977. These are a few examples that illustrate the fascination of the Arab world with celebrities.

The previous literature indicates that Arabs provide celebrities with much more attention than regular citizens. Local and giant international companies have utilized Arab celebrities in advertising. During the 1980s, local football (soccer) star Mahmoud El-Khattib promoted razors, actress Sahar Ramy endorsed hair dye and actor Hassan Abdeen promoted soft drinks (American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt). The American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt also reported that as celebrity use has grown so too have their paychecks. While unconfirmed, superstars such as Amr Diab Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab (Arabic:عمرو عبد الباسط عبد العزيز دياب) (born October 11, 1961) is an Egyptian singer and  (a singer from Egypt) and Nawal Al Zoghby (a singer from Lebanon) may be paid over $1.1 million (approximately 6.3 million Egyptian pounds) for appearances in television commercials. Because the phenomenon of using celebrity to endorse products is increasing in the Arab world, it is important that this phenomenon be understood. As a starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting point
terminus a quo

commencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the , this study focus on celebrity characteristics in Lebanon and the cultural values they manifest in television commercials. It is hoped that this study serves as a guide for future research dealing with advertising in general and television advertising in particular. It is also our hope that this study although deals with only one Arab country, it will increase interest to investigate various regions and countries in the Arab world and the Middle East. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the cultural differences between the United Sates and Lebanon in which we discuss tow main cultural dimensions, low and high context and collectivism/individualism, followed by a section dealing with research questions and hypotheses, then the methodology and results.

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN ADVERTISING CONTENT

McCarty and Hattwick (1992) argued that culture impacts every aspect of a society including the thinking and acting of every member of a group. Thus culture has long been considered to have a significant influence on international advertising strategy (e.g. Albaum and Peterson 1984; Britt britt  
n.
Variant of brit.

Noun 1. britt - the young of a herring or sprat or similar fish
brit

young fish - a fish that is young

2.  1974; Donnelly 1970; Douglas and Dubois 1977; Harvey 1993; Kanso 1992; Mueller 1992; Onkvisit and Shaw 1987). Srikandath (1991) referred to cultural values as the governing ideas and guiding principles for thought and action in a given society. Therefore, cultural values are important variables in advertising research. Advertisements are the richest and most faithful daily reflections that any culture ever made of its entire range of activities (McLuhan 1964). Schudson (1984) viewed advertising as a window to a given culture and a mirror that reflects culture. Frith frith  
n. Scots
A firth.

[Alteration of firth.]

Frith woods or wooded country collectively. See also forest.  (1997) argued that consumers understand advertising messages by relating them to culture. Tse, Belk and Zhou (1989) argued that cultural values conveyed through advertising messages are considered powerful forces shaping consumers' motivations, lifestyles, and product choice. Marketers must understand cultural values of a given society to be able to select effective and appropriate advertising messages. Thus cross-cultural studies Cross-cultural comparisons take several forms. One is comparison of case studies, another is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and a third is comparison within a sample of cases.  are crucial in understanding different cultural values.

Frith and Frith (1989) found significant differences in key cultural values between Western and Eastern cultures reflected in advertising such as direct and indirect discourse Noun 1. indirect discourse - a report of a discourse in which deictic terms are modified appropriately (e.g., "he said `I am a fool' would be modified to `he said he is a fool'") , individualism and collectivism, horizontal and vertical identification of personal relationships, determinism and fatalism fa·tal·ism  
n.
1. The doctrine that all events are predetermined by fate and are therefore unalterable.

2. Acceptance of the belief that all events are predetermined and inevitable. , and logical and intuitive problem-solving. The most common cultural values manifested in advertising include individualism-collectivism (Cheng & Schweitzer 1996; Lin 1993), high and low context cultures and language (Muller 1987), power distance (Sriram and Gpalakrishna 1991; Zandpour et al 1994), uncertainty avoidance (Sriram and Gpalakrishna 1991; Zandpour et al. 1994), and cultural preference for written versus oral communication (Unwin 1974).

Synodinos, Keown, & Jacobs (1989) studied advertising practices in 15 countries and found significant dissimilarities that were attributed to cultural differences. Kanso (1992) investigated the international advertising strategy of the largest fortune 500 corporations and suggested that advertising messages should fit the beliefs and traditions of the citizens in each country. Hornic (1980) found that, in most cases, an adaptive advertising strategy was followed when an American print advertisement for well-known American products was used in Israel. Graham, Kamins & Oetomo (1993) found Japanese and German companies to adapt their international advertisements to the foreign markets.

Lin (1993) argued that the Chinese Confucian influence in the Japanese culture orients its advertising toward respect for nature, tradition, and elders. Hong et al (1987) found Japanese magazine advertisements to include more emotional appeals and less comparative appeals than their American counterparts. Zhang and Gelb (1996) found American consumers prefer individualistic appeals while Chinese consumers prefer collectivistic col·lec·tiv·ism  
n.
The principles or system of ownership and control of the means of production and distribution by the people collectively, usually under the supervision of a government.  appeals. They also found that a match between advertising appeals and cultural values to bring about more favorable attitudes toward the advertisement. Lenormand (1964) concluded that cultural differences such as religious beliefs, basic customs and living standards living standards npl → nivel msg de vida

living standards living npl → niveau m de vie

living standards living npl  are too great to overcome.

The majority of cross-cultural advertising studies assume explicitly that culture is an antecedent ANTECEDENT. Something that goes before. In the construction of laws, agreements, and the like, reference is always to be made to the last antecedent; ad proximun antecedens fiat relatio.  to different advertising content and expressions (Al-Olayan & Karande 2000, Gilly 1988; Hong et al 1987; Mueller 1992; Tansey et al 1990), and tremendous support has been reported for the culture-specific content of advertising. Pollay and Gallagher (1990) argued that cultural values are the core of advertising messages and typical advertisements reinforce cultural values. Finally, several empirical studies ...