Educational Psychology// Krzysiek 5/5
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
(3a 2005/2006; red: Krzysiek)
Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning) [Pavlov]:
§ The process by which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
§ Almost any stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus, e.g. for salivation - a bell, a buzzer, a tuning fork.
§ None of these stimuli “naturally” elicits salivation, but if paired with food, all of them will.
§ US (food) à UR (salivation) || US + NS (bell) à UR || NS à CS || CS à UR
Operant Conditioning [Skinner]:
§ The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences.
§ Consequences are: Neutral (stimulus won’t change probability of behaviour’s occurring)
Reinforcer (increases the probability)
Punisher (decreases the probability – unpleasant or painful)
§ Behaviour is learnt when reinforcing is continuous
Principles of Operant/ Classical Conditioning [Skinner]:
§ extinction – it does not last for ever;
§ immediate vs. delayed consequences;
§ spontaneous recovery – even after some break CS will produce UR;
§ stimulus generalization – if you are afraid of spiders, you don’t like any of them;
§ stimuli discrimination - responses to only 1 distinctive stimulus, no other;
§ learning on schedule (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval);
§ shaping and chaining, superstition
§ SHAPING – you look for a variations of behaviour to come a bit closer to the desired one until you reach expected outcome.
The self & the organism:
§ the self – the conscious view of yourself and the qualities that make up ‘I’ or ‘me’;
§ the organism - total person, including all inborn needs, everything that is connected with our own experience;
§ according to him, fully functioning people show a congruence = harmony between the conscious self & the totality of the person’s unconscious feelings and life experiences. Such people are trusting, warm, and open to new experiences, they aren’t defensive or intolerant.
Gestalt Psychology [Gestalt]:
§ Figure & ground;
§ Gestalt psychology is an approach that emphasizes the perception, learning, and mental manipulation of whole units rather than their analysis into parts;
§ Authentic and creative directing one’s life – autonomy, personalisation, and self discipline
§ Self- and peer-assessment
§ Emotional learning with integration and cooperation
§ Topic-oriented teaching with personalisation and individual approach; input = output
§ Human’s identity = body + mentality + spirit + social & ecological society
Rogers:
Instead of traditional education he suggests PCA (Personal Centred Approach) – a person is given full control over authentic and creative directing one’s live.
Stages of Development [Piaget]:
1) Sensori-motor (0-2 years) – child uses from reflexes to complex sensual and motor skills to understand the world;
a) primary circular reactions: reflex & not purposive movements, primitive memory
b) secondary c. r. : baby begins to direct its activities towards outside the body - more purposive movements
c) tertiary c. r. :child begins to accommodate to new situations by modifying & experimenting with existing schemata + deferred imitation.
2) Pre-operational (2-7) – child has to learn to think creatively, as its thinking is
Pre-conceptual and Intuitive. THINKING: non-reversible, non-logical, egocentric
3) Concrete operations (7-12): ‘reversibility- physical & mental processes can be reversed & cancelled out by others. Child uses symbols, but only in concrete situations.
The tasks are: serration, classification, conservation; thinking is not yet abstract.
4) Formal operations (from 12 years).
§ abstract, hypothetical & symbolic thinking and reasoning (e.g.: scientific reasoning, systematic deductions)
§ intelligence is demonstrated through logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts
Development occurs in three ways – through:
§ assimilation - incoming information is transformed and changed so that it fits within their existing way of thinking;
§ accommodation - this refers to how people adapt their thinking to new experiences;
§ equilibrium - the overall interaction between existing ways of thinking and new experience.
Bruner:
§ Discovery Learning:
Discovery oriented approach - Ss construct new ideas on the basis of previous & current knowledge (discovery through experience and involvement). Discovery process consists of:
o induction - taking things in & using them to work out rules with the minimum of instruct;
o errorful learning - there’s a probability of learning errors & mistakes before acceptable generalisation is possible.
§ Stages of Cognitive Development:
1) enactive stage (0-3 years) – child perceives the world through actions it initiates
2) iconic stage (3-8) – children remember and use info through imagery; visual memory and ability to imagine things without seeing them develops
3) symbolic stage (8) – children imagine and talk in abstract terms. Better mathematical understanding and use of symbolic idioms
§ Cognitive Process – receiving and transferring the knowledge
§ Learning should be active, with the use of background knowledge
Social Interactionism [Vygotsky]:
stages: 1) vague syncretic – choosing by random
2) thinking in complexes - primitive concepts (figures belong to 1 category):
· associative complexes (kid picks only blue blocks) – 1 common charact.
· collections (only triangular)
· chain complexes
· diffuse complexes (picks blocks that aren’t related with each other)
· pseudo-concepts (superficial choices – blocks chosen according to superficial similarities)
3) potential concept stage - kid can cope with 1 attribute at a time, but is not able to manipulate all the attributes at once
§ Children learn on their own (parents shape this learning by rewarding/ punishing)
§ Mediator – improves our learning by selecting stimuli and shaping our learning experiences – parents/ teachers; they present it in a way suitable to promote learning
§ Zone of proximal development – layer of skills preceding learner’s capacity. Child can move to the next one (develop) by interacting with those of the higher level
Dynamic Assessment [Feuerstein]:
Interactive process involving both: T & S. Assessor enters a dialogue with S to find out his level of performance and shares with him possible ways to improve. Both S & assessor discuss the ways how to make it better.
Functions of a T as a mediator:
1) Help Ss to learn/ function in society/ meet new emerging demands.
2) Help Ss be autonomous; become their own problems’ solver.
3) Help Ss interact with materials until they become self-directed.
Features of mediation:
1. Significance. 7. Challenge.
2. Purpose – in the here and now. 8. Awareness of change.
3. Shared intention. 9. Belief in positive outcome.
4. Sense of competence. 10. Sharing.
5. Control of own behaviour. 11. Individuality.
6. Goal setting. 12. Sense of belonging.
1-3 à factors essential for all the learning tasks
4-9 à factors concerned with taking control of learning
10-12 à factors concerned with fostering social development
6 stages of moral devel [Kohlberg]:
Level 1: Preconventional Morality (2-7):
1) Obedience & punishment orientation – afraid of punishment
2) Individualism & exchange – good behaviour brings profits (egocentric)
Level 2: Conventional morality (13-16)
3) Good boy/ good girl orientation - based on love, empathy, trust, loyalty, caring
4) Law and Order - authority maintaining orientation (to maintain social order)
Level 3: Post-conventional morality (16-20)
5) Social contract & individual rights – to keep society functioning; division moral & immoral; contract between people; property less important than life, etc.
6) Universal principles – reach decisions through looking at the situation through smb’s eyes. People realise that there are different points of view; values and laws are relative
Social learning theory [Bandura]:
§ Social learning takes place by watching the behaviour of others and its results. It’s indirect (observational) way of learning.
§ Behaviours are learnt through continuous interaction of a person and environment.
§ All learning occurs by observing other’s behaviour.
§ Children acquire large units of behaviour through observing others and imitating them (parents, Ts, friends, famous people) MODELLING – 1 person sets a pattern of behaviour which is copied by another
§ Environment shapes people but we also can shape the environment.
Effects of exposure to models:
- Modelling Effect – children can copy entirely new response pattern
- Inhibitory/ disinhibitory Effect – observing model’s behaviour, children may alter their own responses by strengthening or inhibiting the responses
- Response Facilitation Effect – the behaviour is provoked in an observer by the clues given from a model
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation:
§ Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there’s no apparent reward, except the activity itself. People seem to engage in these activities for their own sake and not because they lead to an extrinsic reward. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences: feelings of competence & self-determination.
§ Extrinsically motivated behaviours are carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self. Typical extrinsic rewards are money, prizes, and grades. Behaviours initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated.
Maslov’s hierarchy of needs:
§ (deficiency/ deficit needs-they have to be fulfilled for the learning to occur)
o Physiological needs: food, liquids, oxygen
o Safety need: protection
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