FungiSUM_GenusPsilocybeNA_LR.pdf

THE GENUS PSILOCYBE IN NORTH AMERICA

by Michael W. Beug

Professor Emeritus, he Evergreen State College. P. O. Box 116, Husum, WA 98623, beugm@evergreen.edu

small, composed of mostly

little brown non-descript

saprobic mushrooms that no one would

normally give a second thought to

except for the presence in some of a

pair of very special indoles. Psilocybe

was until fairly recently thought to

be closely related to Stropharia and

several members, including Psilocybe

cubensis, have been moved back and

forth between the two genera. However,

current interpretation of DNA results

shows that the Psilocybe genus is

caused considerable consternation

with taxonomists because it means

that whatever species are related to the

type species for the genus will retain

the name Psilocybe and the unrelated

species will have to go into a new

genus. he accepted type for Psilocybe ,

at least as I understood the situation,

was a small non-descript moss-

inhabiting species, Psilocybe montana

(Pers.) P. Kumm 1871 , that does not

produce psilocybin or psilocin (Fig. 1).

hat appeared to mean that all of the

hallucinogenic mushrooms commonly

Figure 2. Psilocybe semilanceata

Figure 1. Psilocybe montana

a very potent one at that, averaging

around 1% by dry weight psilocybin,

but more about that later. What

will happen to the nomenclature of

Psilocybe montana and its relatives is

a story yet to be told, and one about

which few will care.

Most species of Psilocybe,

hallucinogenic or not, are small and

thin leshed. All are saprobic – some

on dung, some on woody debris, some

on other plant remains, some on soil

and others among mosses. he cap

is smooth, often a bit viscid (slimy),

sometimes with a few small appressed

squamules (small scales) or veil

remnants, colored whitish, ochraceous,

grayish, buf, brown or red-brown,

often hygrophanous (the color lightens

to pale tan as the cap loses moisture,

often starting in the center). Most of

the hallucinogenic species bruise from

slightly blue to intensely blue-black.

he spore prints are usually dark violet

brown but in some non-hallucinogenic

species can be reddish brown or

ochraceous. Microscopically the spores

are smooth, rather thick-walled, with

a germ pore. Cheilocystidia occur in

a range of shapes but pleurocystidia

are usually lacking and chrysocystidia

are absent. here are about 30 species

in the United States and Canada and

an additional 50+ species in Mexico

– with some of the Mexican species

appearing in Florida and other tropical

to subtropical parts of the United States

(Guzmán, 2008).

comprised of two groups that are only

distantly related to each other and

both groups are only distantly related

to Stropharia . One group of Psilocybe

species produces the hallucinogen

psilocybin (and usually also the closely

related hallucinogen psilocin) and the

other group does not. Both groups

currently in the genus Psilocybe are

actually much more closely related to

Hypholoma and Pholiota than they are

to Stropharia.

he news that Psilocybe was composed

of two only distantly related groups

known as psilocybes (sometimes simply

“‘shrooms”) were going to need a new

genus.

Fortunately a well-respected group

of mycologists (Redhead et al., 2007)

came to the rescue with a proposal to

conserve the name Psilocybe with a

conserved type. As of February 2010

(Norvel, 2010), it was oicial – the

genus Psilocybe was conserved with

Psilocybe semilanceata (Fr.) P. Kumm

1871 as the conserved type (Fig. 2).

Psilocybe semilanceata is one of the

hallucinogenic Psilocybe species, and

6 FUNGI Volume 4:3 Summer 2011

T he genus Psilocybe is rather

Stamets, Jeremy Bigwood and I

were doing our research on the

chemistry of these mushrooms and

naming a new species and new variety,

the large Psilocybe species (similar in

size to Agaricus campestris or to the

store-bought button mushrooms) were

considered by some authors to belong

in the genus Stropharia. Of these larger,

meaty species there is one species of

particular interest due to the presence

of psilocybin and psilocin. hat species

is Psilocybe cubensis Earle (Singer) (Fig.

3) . It is a beautiful mushroom reaching

he cap is biscuit brown fading to pale

tan as it dries out and has tiny whitish

scales. here is a partial veil leaving a

distinct ring on the of-white stipe. All

parts bruise blue. In the United States

it is found in the wild throughout the

Southeast and in Texas and Hawaii. It

is common in Mexico. Its habitat is on

well-manured ground and on dung –

and that can be the dung of cattle, oxen,

yaks, water bufalo, horses or elephants.

his is a truly widespread tropical

species fruiting spring, summer and fall.

Psilocybe subcubensis is a highly similar

tropical species and though reported

Figure 3. Psilocybe cubensis

up to 8 cm across. he cap can start

out with an umbo and becomes irst

bell-shaped and then convex as it ages.

Breitenbush Mushroom

Gathering

October 20-23, 2011

Eastern European Mushroom Traditions

Alexander Viazmensky, mushroom artist from

St. Petersburg will teach watercolor painting

Chef Michasia Pawluskiewicz will lead the

mushroom culinary workshop

Featured Speakers : Dr. Denis Benjamin, Daniel Winkler,

Debbie Viess

Cost: $175 plus lodging

Registration: Breitenbush 503.854.3320

Info: patrice@mushroominc.org 206.819.4842

www.mushroominc.org

FUNGI Volume 4:3 Summer 2011

I n the 1970s and 1980s when Paul

from California, it was probably the

result of an outdoor growing operation

(Stamets, 1996). I have even found

Psilocybe cubensis outdoors in the

summer near Olympia, Washington,

but again it was undoubtedly the brief

result of someone having planted a

spawn bed there. For illicit cultivators,

Psilocybe cubensis is generally the

mushroom of choice since it is easy to

grow and produces a signiicant amount

of biomass with each lush (Stamets and

Chilton, 1983).

Jeremy Bigwood and I devoted

considerable efort to trying to

understand when the indoles psilocybin

and psilocin were produced, if the

chemicals of interest were concentrated

in any one part of the mushroom, and

whether or not there was much variation

from one stain of this species to another

(Bigwood and Beug, 1982). Jeremy had a

phenomenal knack for obtaining street

samples of Psilocybe cubensis and as

coauthor (under a pseudonym) of an

early cultivation guide (Oss and Oeric,

1976) had considerable cultivation

experience as well. His connections with

leading DEA authorities smoothed the

way for approval of my drug research

application.

Our inding with Psilocybe cubensis

was that the chemicals psilocybin

and psilocin were reasonably evenly

distributed throughout the mushrooms.

With the exceptionally potent Peruvian

strain we were working with, the levels

varied by a factor of four from one

growing session to another growing

session and even from one lush to the

next. Of even more concern was the

observation that in collections from

the street, levels varied by a factor of

10 from one collection to the next.

We found levels of psilocybin plus

psilocin combined varying from 0.1%

by dry weight up to 0.6-0.8%, even a

staggering 1.4% in one case from our

especially potent cultivated strain.

Individuals who choose to ignore the

steep penalties for use of psilocybin

or psilocin (it is a Class I Drug, with

possession treated similar to possession

of heroin or cocaine), and choose to

use this mushroom do not have any

practical way of knowing how strong the

efects of Psilocybe cubensis are likely

to be. While it is a good presumption

that cultivated material will have about

0.5% active material by dry weight and

material collected in the wild will have

about 0.2 to 0.3% active material, many

collections will be much less potent and

a few collections will be twice as potent

as one might have assumed.

with an inrolled corrugated margin

reminiscent of Psilocybe baeocystis.

he bluing reaction is very strong and

the psilocybin plus psilocin content

is nearly 0.9 % with 0.05% baeocystin

and some tryptophan present as well.

Psilocybe caerulescens Murrill is another

species that seems to prefer disturbed

or cultivated ground often without

herbaceous plants present. Psilocybe

caerulescens Murrill can also be found

on sugar cane residues and tends to

grow in clusters. While it was irst

found in Montgomery, Alabama, it is

currently only known from Mexico

Figures 4 (above) & 5a (below). Two

watercolors of Psilocybe caerulescens

by Roger Heim

Figure 6. Psilocybe hoogshagenii

is the illustration labeled

Psilocybe zapotecorum in another

watercolor by Roger Heim

Psilocybe weilii Guzmán, Tapia &

Stamets is a medium (2-6 cm broad)

semitropical species so far reported only

from Georgia where it is found on red

clay soil near both loblolly pine ( Pinus

taeda ) and sweetgum ( Liquidambar

styracilua ). Psilocybe weilii has caps

where it is most commonly found on

muddy orangish brown soils. Psilocybe

caerulescens is quite potent and is the

mushroom that R. Gordon Wasson

consumed in Mexico, as reported in a

famous Life magazine article (Wasson,

1957). Watercolor illustrations of two

varieties of Psilocybe caerulescens

(Figures 4 and 5a) appeared in that

famous Life magazine article. he

watercolors were all done by Roger

Heim, a French mycologist who

accompanied Wasson on some of his

8 FUNGI Volume 4:3 Summer 2011

exploration trips to Mexico.

Psilocybe hoogshagenii Heim sensu

lato (= Psilocybe zapotecorum Heim

sensu Singer) also grows in muddy

clay soils of Mexico, but very far south

in subtropical cofee plantations.

Specimens from Brazil were found to

contain 0.6% combined psilocybin plus

psilocin (Stijve and de Meijer, 1993).

It can fruit in massive abundance in

the cofee plantations of Central and

South America. Psilocybe hoogshagenii

is the illustration labeled Psilocybe

zapotecorum (Figure 6) in the Life

magazine article (Wasson, 1957).

Confusingly, Psilocybe zapotecorum

Heim emend Guzmán is also a

hallucinogenic species found in cofee

plantations as well as in marshy

deciduous forests. However, Psilocybe

zapotecorum Heim emend Guzmán does

not look much like the mushroom with

that name illustrated in the Life magazine

article but instead looks much like

Psilocybe caerulescens var. mazatecorum

(Figure 5a) , and indeed is frequently

confused with Psilocybe caerulescens

(Stamets, 1996). Psilocybe zapotecorum

is one of the most prized of the

hallucinogenic mushrooms of Mexico

as it can be up to 1.3% psilocybin plus

psilocin (Stijve and de Meijer, 1993). It is

an asymmetrical cap (see Figure 5b

and additional photos elsewhere in this

issue). Psilocybe muliericula Singer and

Smith is another bluing Mexican species

found on muddy or swampy soils.

Psilocybe muliericula is found in the state

of Mexico under Abies and Pinus . he

French mycologist Heim had planned to

name this species Psilocybe wassonii but

Rolf Singer and Alex Smith, using Heim

and Wasson’s contacts, published their

name 24 days ahead of Heim’s planned

publication (Stamets, 1996). I came to be

very aware of the resultant rift between

Wasson and Smith because Alex Smith

collaborated with Paul Stamets. Alex

was enamored of the spectacular

Scanning Electron Microscope images

that Paul was taking at he Evergreen

State College. Another of my students,

Jonathan Ott, became a close associate of

R. Gordon Wasson.

Two of the Mexican Psilocybe species

are characterized by having a long

pseudorhiza – a root-like extension of

the stipe going into the ground. One

of these species is the rare Psilocybe

wassoniorum Guzmán and Pollock,

named in honor of R. Gordon Wasson

and his wife Valentina. Psilocybe

wassoniorum is found solitary or in

small groups

in subtropical

deciduous forests.

It is known to be

active but is of

unknown potency.

Psilocybe herrerae

Guzmán has an

extremely long

stipe and a very

long pseudorhiza.

Psilocybe herrerae

is moderately

active. It is

found in Chiapas

and Veracruz,

Mexico solitary to

gregarious in open

forests of pines,

sweetgums, and

oaks.

In Florida and

possibly other

parts of the

Southeast, some

of the Mexican

Psilocybe species

are sometimes

encountered but

exactly which species can be found

there is still somewhat unclear as most

seekers of hallucinogenic species in that

region seek out Psilocybe cubensis. One

known tropical species that is also found

in Florida is Psilocybe mammillata

(Murrill) Smith – the classical bluing

reaction is a clue to the presence of

psilocybin and psilocin, but the species

has not been quantitatively analyzed

and I know of no experimental use of

this species. It is found in soils rich in

woody debris and sometimes on clay

soils. Psilocybe tampanensis is found

in Florida and Mississippi but is quite

rare in the wild so its preferred habitat

is unknown. It has become popular with

cultivators (Stamets and Chilton, 1983).

Psilocybe tampanensis has a cap that is

only 1 to 2.4 cm broad (less than 1”) and

a slim stipe with the classical blue-black

spore print and bluing reaction. It can

contain up to 1% psilocybin and psilocin

by dry weight.

Some individuals have also been

tempted to try some of the large

temperate Psilocybe species because

of their more or less pronounced

blue-green coloration. One example

is Psilocybe aeruginascens (Fig. 7). In

the samples of Psilocybe aeruginascens

Figure 5b. Psilocybe caerulescens

var. mazatecorum. Photo courtesy

of A. Rockefeller.

typically cespitose to gregarious, rarely

scattered and like many of the Mexican

Psilocybe species, it is frequently found

in steep ravines on exposed soils. Its

appearance is reminiscent of a large

Psilocybe caerulescens var. mazatecorum

that is particularly convoluted and with

FUNGI Volume 4:3 Summer 2011

Figure 7. Psilocybe aeruginascens

species, though European collections

have very low activity. A dung associate

that I am aware of that Paul Stamets

has postulated might possibly be

hallucinogenic is the uncommon

small Mycena -like species Psilocybe

angustispora (Figure 11). Psilocybe

angustispora is found on dung of sheep,

cows and horses. I have found it in Idaho

on elk dung and Paul Stamets has found

it on elk dung in the Olympic National

Park where he collected the specimens he

photographed in Figure 11. While Paul

speculated that Psilocybe angustispora

might be hallucinogenic, the fact that

it is in section Atrobrunnea Guzmán, a

section of non-bluing Psilocybe species,

makes me doubtful (Stamets, 1996).

Psilocybe semilanceata (Fig. 2), like

Psilocybe liniformans var. americanus

has little or no psilocin but contains

signiicant levels of psilocybin, varying

from about 0.7% to 1.3% by dry weight

and averaging 1% in our studies (Beug

and Bigwood, 1982). Finnish studies

found levels ranging from 0.62% to 2.37%

with a an average of 1.42% (Jokiranta et

al., 1984) and Norwegian researchers

observed a wide range from a very low

0.17% to 1.96% (Christiansen et al.,

1981). Psilocybe semilanceata is the only

species in the genus found in middle and

northern Europe in suicient quantities

to permit abuse (Stijve and Kuyper,

1985). In a parallel to the situation

with Psilocybe cubensis that seems to

have been widely spread throughout

tropical regions by humans transporting

ungulates with them, Psilocybe

semilanceata appears to have been

widely spread throughout temperate

regions again by humans moving horses,

sheep and cattle with them. However,

unlike Psilocybe cubensis and Psilocybe

liniformans , Psilocybe semilanceata is

not found on dung. It is often found

in pastures, typically boggy maritime

pastures containing sedges and small

rushes as well as grasses and appears to

be closely associated with the grasses. It

also can occur in ungrazed ields, lawns

or other grassy areas. It is not a species

of the interior, though I do have one

undocumented report from Minnesota.

Psilocybe semilanceata can be very

common west of the Cascade Mountains

from northern California to British

Columbia. Figure 12 shows seekers in a

classical pose. Psilocybe semilanceata is

also found in the Northeast, especially

Figure 9. Panaeolus papilionaceus

Figure 10. Psilocybe coprophila

Figure 8. Psilocybe aeruginascens

and Stropharia (formerly Psilocybe )

pseudocyanea

Psilocybe coprophila (Fig. 10) in a

misguided and ill-informed efort to get

high. here are a few temperate dung-

associated Psilocybe species that have

some activity. Psilocybe imentaria has

some similarity to Psilocybe semilanceata

(Fig. 2) but is diferentiated by having

a persistent ring on the stipe and a

broader, less bell-shaped cap and prefers

dung, often horse dung. It is reportedly

mildly hallucinogenic and is found

in the Paciic Northwest and Europe

and may be fairly wide-spread. I never

encountered either Psilocybe imentaria

or the similar Psilocybe subimentaria

in my many years of searching areas

where they are reported to grow, though

if you do encounter them, they can be

fairly plentiful. Psilocybe subimentaria

does not have a sharply papillate cap,

a distinctive feature of both Psilocybe

imentaria and Psilocybe semilanceata.

Psilocybe liniformans var. americana

is a horse dung associate that has been

reported from Washington, Oregon,

and Michigan (Stamets et al., 1980). I

found that it contained psilocybin but

not psilocin and that the amount of

psilocybin averaged 8.9 mg/g with a

range of 6.6 to 12.8 mg/g dry weight,

making this one of the potent Psilocybe

and Stropharia (formerly Psilocybe )

pseudocyanea (Fig. 8) I was able to

analyze I found no psilocybin or

psilocin. Stropharia (formerly Psilocybe )

caerulea has paler gills than Psilocybe

aeruginascens , is a bit smaller and

has a rapidly blue-green discoloring

cap without veil-formed scales on the

surface. his litter mushroom thrives

in garden habitats (as does Psilocybe

aeruginascens ). Stropharia (formerly

Psilocybe ) caerulea has not been

analyzed but might have some activity

though experimentation is always risky

and hardly worth it.

I frequently hear of and observe

individuals seeking hallucinogenic

mushrooms on dung in temperate

regions of North America, though most

frequently individuals were picking

non-hallucinogenic Panaeolus species

like the abundant and widespread

Panaeolus papilionaceus (Fig. 9) or

one of the several similar inactive dung

Psilocybe species like the diminutive

10 FUNGI Volume 4:3 Summer 2011

Plik z chomika:

Inne pliki z tego folderu:

Inne foldery tego chomika: