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Fuel Cell Handbook

(Fifth Edition)

EG&G Services

Parsons, Inc.

Science Applications International Corporation

Under Contract No. DE-AM26-99FT40575

U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Fossil Energy

National Energy Technology Laboratory

P.O. Box 880

Morgantown, West Virginia 26507-0880

October 2000

D ISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States

Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their

employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or respon-

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herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manu-

facturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation,

or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of

authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Govern-

ment or any agency thereof.

Available to DOE and DOE contractors from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information,

P.O. Box 62, 175 Oak Ridge Turnpike, Oak Ridge, TN 37831; prices available at

(423) 576-8401, fax C (423) 576-5725, E-mail C reports@adonis.osti.gov

Available to the public from the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section

Title

Page

TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW...................................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 F UEL C ELL D ESCRIPTION ............................................................................................................ 1-1

1.2 C ELL S TACKING .......................................................................................................................... 1-7

1.3 F UEL C ELL P LANT D ESCRIPTION ................................................................................................ 1-8

1.4 C HARACTERISTICS ...................................................................................................................... 1-9

1.5 A DVANTAGES /D ISADVANTAGES .............................................................................................. 1-11

1.6 A PPLICATIONS , D EMONSTRATIONS , AND S TATUS .................................................................... 1-13

1.6.1

Stationary Electric Power.............................................................................................. 1-13

1.6.2

Distributed Generation .................................................................................................. 1-21

1.6.3

Vehicle Motive Power................................................................................................... 1-25

1.6.4

Space and Other Closed Environment Power ............................................................... 1-26

1.6.5

Fuel Cell Auxiliary Power Systems .............................................................................. 1-26

1.6.6

Derivative Applications................................................................................................. 1-35

1.7

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 1-35

FUEL CELL PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................... 2-1

2.1 P RACTICAL T HERMODYNAMICS ................................................................................................. 2-1

2.1.1 Ideal Performance ........................................................................................................... 2-1

2.1.2 Actual Performance......................................................................................................... 2-4

2.1.3 Fuel Cell Performance Variables .................................................................................... 2-9

2.1.4 Cell Energy Balance...................................................................................................... 2-16

2.2 S UPPLEMENTAL T HERMODYNAMICS ........................................................................................ 2-17

2.2.1

Cell Efficiency .............................................................................................................. 2-17

2.2.2

Efficiency Comparison to Heat Engines ....................................................................... 2-19

2.2.3

Gibbs Free Energy and Ideal Performance.................................................................... 2-19

2.2.4

Polarization: Activation (Tafel) and Concentration ..................................................... 2-23

2.3

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 2-26

POLYMER ELECTROLYTE FUEL CELL ............................................................................... 3-1

3.1 C ELL C OMPONENTS .................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.1.1

Water Management ......................................................................................................... 3-2

3.1.2

State-of-the-Art Components .......................................................................................... 3-3

3.1.3

Development Components .............................................................................................. 3-6

3.2

P ERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................ 3-9

3.3

D IRECT M ETHANOL P ROTON E XCHANGE F UEL C ELL .............................................................. 3-12

3.4

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 3-14

ALKALINE FUEL CELL ............................................................................................................. 4-1

4.1 C ELL C OMPONENTS .................................................................................................................... 4-3

4.1.1 State-of-the-Art Components .......................................................................................... 4-3

4.1.2 Development Components .............................................................................................. 4-4

4.2 P ERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................ 4-5

4.2.1

Effect of Pressure ............................................................................................................ 4-5

4.2.2

Effect of Temperature .....................................................................................................4-7

4.2.3

Effect of Reactant Gas Composition ............................................................................... 4-8

4.2.4

Effect of Impurities ......................................................................................................... 4-8

4.2.5

Effects of Current Density............................................................................................. 4-10

4.2.6

Effects of Cell Life........................................................................................................ 4-12

4.3

S UMMARY OF E QUATIONS FOR AFC ........................................................................................ 4-12

4.4

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 4-12

PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL............................................................................................. 5-1

5.1 C ELL C OMPONENTS .................................................................................................................... 5-2

5.1.1 State-of-the-Art Components .......................................................................................... 5-2

5.1.2 Development Components .............................................................................................. 5-5

5.2 P ERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................ 5-9

5.2.1

Effect of Pressure .......................................................................................................... 5-10

5.2.2

Effect of Temperature ................................................................................................... 5-11

5.2.3

Effect of Reactant Gas Composition and Utilization .................................................... 5-12

5.2.4

Effect of Impurities ....................................................................................................... 5-14

5.2.5

Effects of Current Density............................................................................................. 5-17

5.2.6

Effects of Cell Life........................................................................................................ 5-18

5.3

S UMMARY OF E QUATIONS FOR PAFC ...................................................................................... 5-18

5.4

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 5-20

MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL ...................................................................................... 6-1

6.1 C ELL C OMPONENTS .................................................................................................................... 6-4

6.1.1 State-of-the-Art ............................................................................................................... 6-4

6.1.2 Development Components .............................................................................................. 6-9

6.2 P ERFORMANCE .......................................................................................................................... 6-12

6.2.1

Effect of Pressure .......................................................................................................... 6-14

6.2.2

Effect of Temperature ................................................................................................... 6-17

6.2.3

Effect of Reactant Gas Composition and Utilization .................................................... 6-19

6.2.4

Effect of Impurities ....................................................................................................... 6-23

6.2.5

Effects of Current Density............................................................................................. 6-28

6.2.6

Effects of Cell Life........................................................................................................ 6-28

6.2.7

Internal Reforming ........................................................................................................ 6-29

6.3

S UMMARY OF E QUATIONS FOR MCFC ..................................................................................... 6-32

6.4

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 6-36

INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURE SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL ....................................... 7-1

SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL ........................................................................................................8-1

8.1 C ELL C OMPONENTS .................................................................................................................... 8-3

8.1.1 State-of-the-Art ............................................................................................................... 8-3

8.1.2 Cell Configuration Options ............................................................................................. 8-6

8.1.3 Development Components ............................................................................................ 8-11

8.2 P ERFORMANCE .......................................................................................................................... 8-13

8.2.1

Effect of Pressure .......................................................................................................... 8-13

8.2.2

Effect of Temperature ................................................................................................... 8-14

8.2.3

Effect of Reactant Gas Composition and Utilization .................................................... 8-16

8.2.4

Effect of Impurities ....................................................................................................... 8-19

8.2.5

Effects of Current Density............................................................................................. 8-21

8.2.6

Effects of Cell Life........................................................................................................ 8-21

S UMMARY O F E QUATIONS F OR SOFC 41 ................................................................................... 8-22

8.3

8.4

R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 8-22

9. FUEL CELL SYSTEMS ................................................................................................................ 9-1

9.1 S YSTEM P ROCESSES .................................................................................................................... 9-2

9.1.1 Fuel Processing ............................................................................................................... 9-2

9.1.2 Rejected Heat Utilization .............................................................................................. 9-30

9.1.3 Power Conditioners and Grid Interconnection.............................................................. 9-30

9.1.4 System and Equipment Performance Guidelines .......................................................... 9-32

9.2 S YSTEM O PTIMIZATIONS ........................................................................................................... 9-34

9.2.1 Pressurization ................................................................................................................ 9-34

9.2.2 Temperature .................................................................................................................. 9-36

9.2.3 Utilization...................................................................................................................... 9-37

9.2.4 Heat Recovery ............................................................................................................... 9-38

9.2.5 Miscellaneous................................................................................................................ 9-39

9.2.6 Concluding Remarks on System Optimization ............................................................. 9-39

9.3 F UEL C ELL S YSTEM D ESIGNS ................................................................................................... 9-40

9.3.1 Natural Gas Fueled PEFC System ................................................................................ 9-40

9.3.2 Natural Gas Fueled PAFC System ................................................................................ 9-41

9.3.3 Natural Gas Fueled Internally Reformed MCFC System ............................................. 9-44

9.3.4 Natural Gas Fueled Pressurized SOFC System............................................................. 9-45

9.3.5 Natural Gas Fueled Multi-Stage Solid State Power Plant System ................................ 9-50

9.3.6 Coal Fueled SOFC System (Vision 21) ........................................................................ 9-54

9.3.7 Power Generation by Combined Fuel Cell and Gas Turbine Systems.......................... 9-57

9.3.8 Heat and Fuel Recovery Cycles .................................................................................... 9-58

9.4 F UEL C ELL N ETWORKS ............................................................................................................. 9-70

9.4.1 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Networks: Principles, Analysis and Performance ........... 9-70

9.4.2 MCFC Network............................................................................................................. 9-74

9.4.3 Recycle Scheme ............................................................................................................ 9-74

9.4.4 Reactant Conditioning Between Stacks in Series.......................................................... 9-74

9.4.5 Higher Total Reactant Utilization ................................................................................. 9-75

9.4.6 Disadvantages of MCFC Networks............................................................................... 9-76

9.4.7 Comparison of Performance.......................................................................................... 9-76

9.4.8 Conclusions ................................................................................................................... 9-77

9.5 H YBRIDS ................................................................................................................................... 9-77

9.5.1 Technology.................................................................................................................... 9-77

9.5.2 Projects.......................................................................................................................... 9-79

9.5.3 World’s First Hybrid Project......................................................................................... 9-81

9.5.4 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) ................................................................................... 9-81

9.6 R EFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 9-83

10. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ...................................................................................................... 10-1

10.1 U NIT O PERATIONS .................................................................................................................... 10-1

10.1.1 Fuel Cell Calculations ................................................................................................... 10-1

10.1.2 Fuel Processing Calculations ...................................................................................... 10-16

10.1.3 Power Conditioners ..................................................................................................... 10-20

10.1.4 Others .......................................................................................................................... 10-20

10.2 S YSTEM I SSUES ....................................................................................................................... 10-21

10.2.1 Efficiency Calculations ............................................................................................... 10-21

10.2.2 Thermodynamic Considerations ................................................................................. 10-23

10.3 S UPPORTING C ALCULATIONS ................................................................................................. 10-27

iii

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