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Principles and Practice
in
Second Language Acquisition
Stephen D Krashen
University of Southern California
This is the original version of Principles and Practice, as published in 1982, with only minor
changes. It is gratifying to point out that many of the predictions made in this book were
confirmed by subsequent research, for example, the superiority of comprehensible-input
based methods and sheltered subject matter teaching (Krashen, 2003), the inefficacy of error
correction (Truscott, 1996, 1999), and the "power of reading" (Krashen, 2004). Subsequent
research has also, in my opinion, confirmed that in footnote 5, chapter 3, option 3 is the
correct one, that we acquire vocabulary best through comprehensible input (Krashen, 1989;
2003).
I have changed my position on only one issue: At the end of Principles and Practice, I suggest
the use of a form of deception - students may think they are acquiring vocabulary or learning
subject matter, but unknown to them, they are acquiring because they are getting
comprehensible input at the same time. I now think it is very important to make a strong effort
to inform students about the process of language acquisition, so they can continue to improve
on their own.
Krashen, S. (1989) We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for
the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal 73, 440-464.
Krashen, S. (2003) Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use: The Taipei Lectures.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. (2004) The Power of Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language
Learning, 46 (2), 327-69.
Truscott, J. (1999). What's wrong with oral grammar correction? The Canadian Modern
Language Review, 55(4), 437-56.
Introduction to the Internet Edition
Copyright © 1982 Stephen Krashen
All Rights Reserved. This publication may be downloaded and copied without charge for all
reasonable, non-commercial educational purposes, provided no alterations in the text are
made.
First printed edition 1982 by Pergamon Press Inc.
Print Edition ISBN 0-08-028628-3
First internet edition July 2009
i
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to many people who have helped me both directly and indirectly. I can only
mention a few of them here. Earl Stevick and Robin Scarcella kindly provided me with
detailed comments on nearly every aspect of the manuscript. I have also received a great
deal of useful feedback from John Schumann, John Oller, Adrian Palmer, Tracy Terrell,
Andrew Cohen, Steven Sternfeld, and Batyia Elbaum. I am sure this book would be much
stronger if I had followed all their advice. The task of writing this volume was made much
easier by the support and understanding of my family, my wife Eula, my children Deborah and
Daniel, and my parents Leo and Julia Krashen. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the
Linguistics Department at USC for their intellectual stimulation and encouragement. I
especially thank Larry Hyman, Edward Finegan, Eugene Briere, Elaine Andersen, Elinor
Ochs, Edward Purcell, John Hawkins, and Bernard Comrie.
ii
Contents
I. Introduction: The Relationship of Theory to Practice
1
A. Three Approaches to Method
2
1. Theory of second language acquisition
2
2. Applied linguistics research
3
3. Ideas and intuitions from experience
3
B. Interactions Among Approaches to Practice
4
C. What the Three Approaches Have to Say About Method
6
D. Goals of This Book: to reintroduce teachers to theory and
7
hopefully to gain their confidence again
Notes
8
II. Second Language Acquisition Theory
9
A. Five Hypotheses About Second Language Acquisition
10
1. The acquisition-learning distinction
10
2. The natural order hypothesis
12
(a) Transitional forms
14
3. The Monitor hypothesis
15
(a) Individual variation in Monitor use
18
4. The input hypothesis
20
(a) Statement of the hypothesis
20
(b) Evidence supporting the hypothesis
22
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis
30
B. The Causative Variable in Second Language Acquisition
32
1. The causative variables
32
2. Language teaching: does it help?
33
(a) When language teaching helps
34
(b) When language teaching does not help
35
3. Exposure variables
37
4. Age
43
5. Acculturation
45
III. Providing Input for Acquisition
57
A. The Potential of the Second Language Classroom
58
B. Limitations of the Classroom
59
C. The Role of Output
60
1. "Conversation" and language acquisition
61
2. Output and learning
61
iii

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