TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER 1: DEFINITION OF DYSLEXIA
1.1. Dyslexia – definitions.................................................................................................5
1.2. Confusion and Consensus...........................................................................................7
1.3. Current theoretical views on the etiology of dyslexia................................................8
1.4. Different types of dyslexia.......................................................................................10
1.5. Dyslexia research......................................................................................................11
1.6. Professional involvement and perspectives..............................................................12
1.7. Characteristics of dyslexia........................................................................................13
1.8. The role of the label..................................................................................................16
1.9. Dyslexia as a difference............................................................................................17
1.10. Identification...........................................................................................................19
1.11. Information processing...........................................................................................26
1.12. Assessment.............................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 2: TEACHING METHODS FOR DYSLEXIC CHILDREN
2.1. The dyslexic learner in the classroom - teacher's role and support..........................32
2.2. General rules on how to teach dyslexic children......................................................33
2.3. Dyslexia and learning styles.....................................................................................34
2.4. Multi–sensory teaching methods..............................................................................35
2.5. Confidence building.................................................................................................37
2.6. Dyslexia and learning English Grammar..................................................................40
2.6.1. Word structure...........................................................................................40
2.6.2. Punctuation................................................................................................41
2.6.3. Parts of speech...........................................................................................43
2.6.4.Syllables......................................................................................................44
2.6.5. Plurals........................................................................................................45
2.7. Dyslexia and learning spelling................................................................................46
2.8. Literacy abilities and processes................................................................................49
CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH RESULTS
3.1. Research questions...................................................................................................51
3.2. The method of research............................................................................................52
3.3. The analysis of the observation................................................................................54
3.3.1. Raising students’ self esteem and self confidence.....................................54
3.3.2. ‘Punctuation Detectives’ - Capital Letters.................................................55
3.3.3. Using rhymes and mnemonics to help with pronunciation........................55
3.3.4. Multi–sensory teaching methods – method results....................................56
3.3.5. Learning about the parts of speech............................................................58
3.3.6. Games in learning dyslectic children.........................................................59
3.4. Conclusion................................................................................................................60
SUMMARY.....................................................................................................................62
REFERENCES................................................................................................................64
LIST OF TABLES...........................................................................................................68
LIST OF DIAGRAMS....................................................................................................69
INTRODUCTION
Dyslexia – in the narrow sense – manifests itself as difficulties with learning to read, but in the broader sense also denotes spelling problems (dysorthographia) and a deficiency in the ability to write (dysgraphia). Until recently, it was mainly teachers of a student’s mother tongue who had to deal with assessment and methodological problems arising from the presence of a dyslectic child in the classroom, but the problem also concerns foreign language teachers.
Many factors may influence the onset of dyslexia. It can be caused by a poor effort to learn, lack of knowledge concerning spelling, or poor didactic activity during the first years of school, but also – as has been scientifically proven – can be the outcome of central nervous system impairment. Dyslexia can also be hereditary.
Among the most common mistakes made by persons touched by dyslexia (in the English language) are:
· In the field of visual analysis and synthesis:
- mistaking graphically similar words;
- omitting single letters;
- changing the sequence of letters in words;
· Within the scope of phonetics:
- mistaking the meanings of words;
- pmitting words during reading;
- difficulties with spelling new words after hearing them spoken out loud for the first time.
Learning English causes dyslectic students additional problems, as there are considerable differences between spelling and pronunciation. Furthermore, one letter can often change the meaning of a word.
The question that comes to mind is: how to work with a dyslectic student? Most importantly, a dyslectic student requires an individual approach, as each case of dyslexia is different. A teacher should start by making the student aware of the worth of his hard work, and of the difficulties which lie before him. A dyslectic student learning English should form the habit of using a dictionary. The teacher should emphasize the importance of mastering the rules of grammar, which will prove helpful in moments of uncertainty. It is important to remember that a teacher shouldn’t ask a dyslectic student to read new reading material out loud, as it may cause the student to fell stress. A teacher instructing dyslectic students should, when possible, utilize unconventional solutions, e.g. instead of reading – listening, or, when dealing with advanced dyslexia, substitute written tests with verbal ones. A teacher must always keep in mind that a dyslectic student needs more time to complete a written examination or test. It is useful to increase the number of exercises which help overcome dyslexia, such as: games involving writing, crossword puzzles, filling in missing letters in words, choosing word groups, exercises involving choosing the correct answer, or linking words with their opposites or definitions.
What needs to be kept in mind is that despite hard work, a student may receive poor grades. Whether or not the student feels appreciated for his work depends mainly on the teacher. On the other hand, the teacher should not be too liberal, as this might cause a fall in motivation and delay progress.
A foreign language teacher’s biggest problem entails evaluating a dyslectic student. During the last few years, dyslectic students’ situation has improved considerably. Education authorities recommend an individual approach to students with learning disorders, as regards to requirements and evaluation (Ordinance of the Ministry of National Education from the 21st of March 2001). Assessment of written language skills is a very important element of a student’s grade, especially in an English as a foreign language classroom, as even one misplaced letter can change the meaning of a word or the grammatical sense of an entire sentence.
As each teacher has a subjective approach to the problem of student evaluation, it should be established – for each foreign language – which mistakes are fundamental, and which are minor. Due to the fact that such guidelines have not been established, an English teacher assessing a dyslectic student should not take under consideration spelling mistakes which do not change a word’s sense or cause a sentence to be grammatically incorrect (especially during classwork). While evaluating listening comprehension, a teacher should take under consideration only logical mistakes. Semester grades should be based mainly on verbal responses, listening comprehension and a student’s participation in classroom activities. Dyslectic children should also be given the opportunity of completing additional assignments at home, so that these children might succeed while working at their own pace.
1.1. Dyslexia – definitions
According to Cox (1985) the word dyslexia is derived from dys, which is a Greek prefix meaning ‘poor’ or ‘inadequate’ and lexis which is Greek for ‘words’ or ‘language’, and so means literally a ‘trouble with words’.
The International Dyslexia Association (1998) complained that dyslexia is a learning disability described by problems in receptive or expressive, oral or written language. Problems might surface in writing, reading, spelling, speaking or listening. Dyslexia is not a disease. Dyslexia has no cure. Dyslexia describes a different type of mind, often gifted and productive, that learns differently. We must remember that dyslexia is not the result of low intelligence. Intelligence is not the problem in people with this inability. An unexpected gap exists between learning aptitude and achievement in school. The problem is not psychological, behavioural, motivational or social. Dyslexia is not a problem of vision because people with dyslexia do not ‘see backwards’. Dyslexia results from differences in the structure and function of the brain. People with dyslexia are unique, each having individual strengths and weaknesses. Many dyslexics are creative and have unusual talents in areas such as graphics, art, athletics, drama, architecture, electronics, mechanics, music or engineering. Dyslexic pupils often show special accomplishment in areas that require visual, spatial, and motor integration. Dyslexic pupils’ problems in language processing distinguish them as a group. This means that the dyslexic pupils have problems with translating languages into thought (as in listening or reading) or thought into language (as in writing or speaking).
According to Peer (1999) dyslexia is best described as a combination of abilities and difficulties which affect the learning process in one or more than one of writing, reading and spelling. Accompanying weaknesses may be identified in expanses of speed of processing, short-term memory, sequencing, auditory and or visual perception, spoken language and also motor skills. Abilities and difficulties are particularly related to mastering and using written language, which maybe include alphabetic, musical notation and numeric. Some learners have outstanding constructive skills, others have strong oral skills. Dyslexia occurs despite normal teaching and it is independent of socio-economic background or intelligence. Dyslexia is more easily detected in those with average or above average intelligence.
The most frequently quoted definition of dyslexia was printed by a working group of the International Dyslexia Association (IDA; Lyon, Shaywitz, and Shaywitz, 2003). This definition sounds as follows:
‘Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.’ (p. 2)
According to this definition there are several key points. First is the statement that dyslexia is of ‘neurobiological origin’. This affirmation indicates that to be considered dyslexia the reading difficulty must not be attributable to external environmental causes, such as poor instruction, and that the difficulty lies somewhere within the respective.
Beaton (2004) provides a brief discussion of the first appearance of the term dyslexia as well as the condition that is currently associated with this definition. According to Beaton (2004), Sir Henry Broadbent was the first to look back on this disorder in 1872, when Sir Henry Broadbent described child who had lost the ability to read following brain injury.
According to Burden (2002) definition can cause misunderstanding especialy in relation to the identification of dyslexia, as the use of the label dyslexia maybe depend on the specific identification criteria applied. Burden B. (2002) suggests that dyslexia is a ‘convenience term’ because it can embrace a number of different types of difficulties and, therefore, the term dyslexia in itself is not helpful. While there is some validity in this – mainly because of the overlapping features between dyslexia and other types of difficulties – it is evading the issue to describe dyslexia as a convenience term.
According to Reid (2003) there are some framemork characteristics of dyslexia that are important for identification, assessment and for the development of Individualized Education Programs (IEP), teaching and curriculum materials. These characteristics – whatever the term used to describe them – can present considerable barriers to learning for adults and children in school. It may be helpful to view dyslexia from the perspective of endeavouring to identify and address the barriers to literacy and learning that will be able to be experienced by the pupil with dyslexia. These discouragements will be described, but it is important to acknowledge that the means of addressing these discouragements can lie within the classroom environment and curriculum differentiation as much as with the use of any specialised resources.
If pupil has dyslexia it means that a small part of his or her brain is built a little differently from other pupils. But we must know that this is not bad thing. Everybody is differentand everybody looks different on the outside. Analogous we can say that everybody’s brain is different too. That is why everyone has their own personal list of things they are good at and things they find hard to do. It is important that other pupil with dyslexia would not have precisely the same list of things.
1.2. Confusion and consensus
The confusion that surrounds the use of the term dyslexia has arisen for a number of causes. According to Warnock Report (DES, 1978) acknowledged the presence of pupil who had unexpected and unusual difficulties in literacy, but stated that the term dyslexia was not helpful to describe these pupils and that the term ‘specific learning difficulties’ would be a more appropriate one to use. Education authorities, therefore, were reluctant to use the term dyslexia and this was not helpful in the quest to clarify the term, nor to give teachers an understanding of dyslexia and to examine the implications of this for the classroom. The reluctance to use the term also gave rise to a vigorous (and largely successful) lobbying campaign by a range of pressure groups to have the term accepted and applied.
To many experts, dyslexia seems to be a very elusive condition. Some are still arguing over its nature, origin and symptoms, since dyslexia has many faces. Dyslexia manifests itself by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of writing, reading, speaking, listening, reasoning and mathematical abilities. Through the past years there has been a significant increase in the amount of research on dyslexia conducted and the emerging data is far from conclusive. Some possible causes of dyslexia have been identified by researchers, but not all have been fully confirmed yet. There may exist many theories concerning the etiology of dyslexia, but the factors responsible for some specific learning difficulties include: genetic, environmental and neurological factors (such as brain's impairment, deformation, dysfunction and backwardness, brain's anatomical differences and the size of hemispheres), disorders happening in the prenatal period, disorders in sensory perception and motor functions and hearing problems in early childhood. Dyslexia, however, may be associated with some risk factors, such as: male sex and other family members affected with this dysfunction.
1.3. Current theoretical views on the etiology of dyslexia
Two primary schools of thought continue to focus on visual systems as related to reading and dyslexia. The older of the two theories (Buswell, 1922) has shown that reading skill influences eye movements. Rayner (1978, 1998) has expanded on this and suggested that at least some reading problems are caused by tracking issues. Tracking is defined as when the eyes move across the page of print attempting to extract meaning. Although the eyes of the reader may appear to be gliding across a page, they are actually engaging in fixations (i.e., where the eye stops for 200–250 ms and takes in information) and saccades (i.e., where the eye moves for about 20–40 ms moving from the next stimuli to the subsequent one, but is not taking in information). Thus, students who have problems with this type of eye movement are believed to be at risk for reading problems. There has been an ongoing debate about whether tracking issues cause reading problems or whether reading problems cause tracking issues. One position on this espoused by Eden, Stein and Wood (1994) has identified two ways in which eye movement difficulties can create problems. First, they propose that children with reading problems may have difficulties with fixation stability at the end of a fixation pause when reading. Second, poor readers may have vergence difficulties that can interfere with binocular vision and impede reading. Berninger and Richards (2002) suggest that increasing print size for the former and eye patching for the latter could be helpful.
More controversy exists around the vision tracking and other ‘visual’ exercises that are sometimes proposed as alternative interventions for reading problems. A joint statement by the American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Ophthalmology, and American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (1998) stated that:
‘Eye defects, subtle or severe, do not cause the patient to experience reversal of letters, words, or numbers. No scientific evidence supports claims that the academic abilities of children with learning disabilities can be improved with treatments that are based on (1) visual training, including muscle exercises, ocular pursuit, tracking exercises, or “training” glasses (with or without bifocals or prisms); (2) neurological organizational training (laterality training, crawling, balance board, perceptual training); or (3) colored lenses. These more controversial methods of treatment may give parents and teachers a false sense of security that a child’s reading difficulties are being addressed, which may delay proper instruction or remediation. The expense of these methods is unwarranted, and they cannot be substituted for appropriate educational measures. Claims of improved reading and learning after visual training, neurologic organization training, or use of colored lenses are almost always based on poorly controlled studies that typically rely on anecdotal information. These methods are without scientific validation. Their reported benefits can be explained by the traditional educational remedial techniques with which they are usually combined.’ (p. 1217)
The second theory based on visual processing has to do with the efficiency of the magnocellular system. This vision system is associated with detecting motion sensitivity. Stein and colleagues (Stein & Talcott, 1999; Stein & Walsh, 1997; Talcott et al., 1998) contend that slow processing in this system can interfere with letter position information. Others (Eden et al., 1996) have begun to establish brain imaging evidence that poor readers experience during a deficit in this type of fast visual processing.
Stein (2001) who proposes an integrated theory has also noted that motion sensitivity, which takes place in the magnocellular system, predicts orthographic skills. Thus, it is possible that as the research unfolds there may be convergence of the orthographic and the magnocellular views on the etiology of dyslexia.
In the same way that inefficient or slow processing in the visual system was explored, Miller and Fitch (1993) have pursued the notion that inefficient temporal processing is central to the etiology of dyslexia. This approach explains these difficulties as the brain’s inability to perform tasks requiring the processing of brief stimuli in rapid temporal or sequential succession. This approach postulates that there is a causative link between the ability to process auditory input effectively and the ability to perceive phonemes. They do not deny that phonological processing is important, but postulate that phonological processing...
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